describing contributor roles that c

describing contributor roles that could be used in STM journals (Allen, Scott, Brand, Hlava, & Altman, 2014; Meadows 2014). The CRediT taxonomy seeks to regularize these issues and is dealt with in a recent paper by Brand et al. (2015). 2.12.9 San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) Dissatisfaction among researchers as well as some journals and publishers with the way research assessment is conducted was made evident in the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) in late 2012 (American Society for Cell Biology & et al, 2012). The Declaration points out that research outputs are many and varied, and rehearses the arguments against use of the Impact Factor for research assessment. Its key recommendation is to not use journal metrics as a surrogate for article quality for research assessment purposes, but it also makes a number of recommendations for publishers and metrics providers: • greatly reduce the emphasis on journal impact factor in promotion• make article-level metrics available to encourage a shift away from journal-level metrics• remove all reuse limitations on reference lists in research articles and make them freely available• remove or reduce the constraints on the number of references in research articles• be open and transparent by providing data and methods used to calculate all metrics• provide the data under a licence that allows unrestricted reuse, and provide computational access to data, where possibleThe declaration had been signed by over 12,000 individuals and about 550 organisations at the time of writing. 2.12.10 Changes in citation behaviours In addition to the trends outlined above, two papers from the Google Scholar team have provided evidence that shows authors are citing a higher proportion of older papers than in the past, and that highly-cited papers are more likely to be found in non-elite journals (Acharya et al., 2014; Verstak et al., 2014). In both cases the authors speculate that online availability and growing ease of discovery (e.g. via search engines or other discovery tools) of older and more obscure journal content has played a role. 2.12.11 Citations by patents Citations to STM articles made within patents are sometimes used as another measure of wider impact beyond academe. Citations are typically much older than in the scientific literature, mainly because of the delay in granting patents; for example, the NSB analysis looks at an 11-year window after a 5-year lag. In the US, the proportion of patents citing academic literature increased from 12% to 23% between 2003 and 2016, with foreign articles drawing more citations in USPTO patents (54%) than US articles (46%) (NSB 2018). The majority of cited articles fall into a small number of fields: biological sciences (34%), medical sciences (24%), computer sciences (12%), engineering (11%), chemistry (9%), and physics (8%)2.12.12 Usage and the Journal Usage Factor Total global downloads of articles from publishers’ sites have been estimated at between 1.1 billion in 2010 (as shown in Table 2) and 2.5 billion (according to an informal STM survey), with perhaps another 400 million from other sites such as repositories.