An important additional orientation

An important additional orientation to consider in smallholder populations is orientation towards subsistence production relative to market or profitoriented production (Subramanian and Qaim 2009). The need to account for farmers’ subsistence needs can add complexity to predicting adoption of new practices, particularly where subsistence farmers are also sometimes engaged in market-directed production, depending on the growing-season conditions (e.g. Smale et al. 1995). The limited ability to market or store surplus products can also mean that care is needed when assuming that an increase in production always leads to relative advantage and adoption (e.g. Michler et al. 2019).