4.1.1. “Process-related” upgrading

4.1.1. “Process-related” upgrading to high-efficiency and low-carbon port operations “Process-related” upgrading refers to increasing the efficiency of production either through enhanced organization of the production process or the use of improved technology (Kohpaiboon and Jongwanich, 2013). As in the case of Shanghai, the ever-increasing size of cargo ships and world trade volumes have increased pressure on ports to become larger and more efficient (Jakobsen et al., 2017). In particular, environmental pollution, energy depletion, and heavily concentrated traffic flows have received increased attention. Thus, the need to optimize overall operating processes pertaining to cargo flow to achieve highly efficient and ecologically friendly ports has been recognized and accepted by the maritime industry and the overall port community. Such upgrading can not only be observed in Shanghai but also in other port-originated maritime clusters. For instance, Rotterdam, the largest port in Europe, is now regarded as being among the world’s most advanced ports in terms of terminal automation (Jakobsen et al., 2017). Singapore’s Green Port Programme, announced on July 1, 2011, has promoted abatement and scrubber technology as well as burning clean, low-sulfur fuels through the adoption of a 15% concession in port dues and grants of up to 50% of total qualifying costs (Acciaro et al., 2014). In sum, “process-related” upgrading focuses on adopting new technology and redevising the cargo-flow process to enable upgrading into an ecologically friendly port that is highly efficient and generates low carbon emissions.