Alternative typologies have focused for example on the goals of the participatory projects as well as the environments in which they are carried out. Information scientists Andrea Wiggins and Kevin Crowston (2011) distinguish five types of “citizen science”: “action” (reaching local civic agendas through science), “conservation” (natural resource management), “investigation” (data collection in a natural environment), “virtual” (online scientific research projects), and “education” (science education in formal and informal settings). This typology places a greater emphasis, and value, on place and locality in participatory projects, highlighting participatory projects carried out in the physical world and distinguishing them from the “virtual” projects carried out online which have, due to their technological novelty, received the most attention in the media.